Motivation in Human Resource Management

want in Human Resource ManagementIn the approximate era of competition, organizations nowadays be to a greater extent(prenominal) emphasizing on the management of Human Resources (Robert. L, 2008). Motivation a key st dictategy in Human Resource Management has helped practitioners abundant-scalely enough to subject the enclosure Motivation for a discussion. Steers, Mowday and Shapiro (2004), asserted that employee demand vivifys a vital role in the management wrap ii metaphysic providedy and practic all toldy. It is give tongue to that one of the primal functions of human resource manager is to ensure psycheized origin of credit commitment at the move aroundplace, which elicit only be achieved through indispensableness (Petcharak, 2002). check to Mishra and Gupta (2009) the world of locomote has changed signifi screwingtly due to globalization all over the past few years and organizations argon being assessed against supranational standards and best pract ices. Consequently the emphasis upon batch has increased. Conferring to the formers, since organization has to produce its eruptcomes through its employees, on that point is emphasis on penury and concern for people through assessment, regular feedback, ongoing support and experience based initiatives. Motivation is important because of its significance as a determinant of exertion and its intangible nature (Mishra and Gupta 2009).Generally if workers ar de instigated, organizations be unlikely to operate affectively in achieving their stopping points and success supported by Khan (2010), who points come in that employment dis triumph, usually leads to poor carrying into action of employees and hence affect the act of the organization as well. because the plan of penury is very important as god employees can help be corroborate an organization competitively more value transmited, hence profitable and highly motivated employees serve as the competitive avail for a ny company because their performance allow an organization to well accomplish its goals (Danish and Usman, 2010).Based on these reasoning, this write up shall include analytical and empirical studies to reveal the discrepancies and feasibility aspect of the domain, as Rai (2004) put forward indigence is crucial for good performance and accordingly it is increasingly important to study what motivates employees for better performance. This section offers a re persuasion of literature, which explores the inventions, types and theories of want.MotivationMotivation is defined as a human psychological characteristic that add to a individuals degree of commitment. It is the management demonstrate of inuencing employees behavior. (Badu, 2005, p.38)Conversely, Bartol and Martin (1998) relate motivation to the force that experiences behavior, provide teaching to behavior, and underlies the lamency to prevail. In early(a)wise words individuals must be sufficiently stimulated and e nergetic, must curb a clear focus on what is to be achieved, and must be volitioning to commit their power for a long period of time to realize their aim in fix to achieve goals.However, other than motivation being a force that stimulates behavior, Vroom (1964) emphasized on the voluntary actions. Supported by Steers et al. (2004), Vroom (1964) defined motivation as a process governing choice do by personsamong choice forms of voluntary activity. Similarly Kreitner and Kinicki (2004) assumed that motivation incorporate those psychological processes that create the arousal, direction and patience of voluntary actions that are goal oriented.Quite diametricly from the other definitions, Locke and Latham (2004) identified that motivation influence peoples expertness of skills and the extent to which they use their ability. fit in to the authors the invention of motivation refers to internal factors that impel action and to away factors that can act as inducements to action. The ternary aspects of action that motivation can affect are direction (choice), eagerness (effort), and duration (persistence). Motivation can affect both the acquisition of peoples skills and abilities and also the extent to which they utilize their skills and abilities (Locke and Latham 2004, p.388).In a nut shell, different authors have put forward the concept of motivation differently. Nonetheless, these definitions have 3 common aspects, that is, they are all principally link with factors or events that stimulate, channel, and prolong human behavior over time (Steers, Mowday and Shapiro, 2004).Intrinsic and Extrinsic motivationFollowing Lakhani and Wolf (2005), Lakhani and Von Hippel (2003) and Lemer and Tirole (2004), the current scholarly thinking favors a framework that considers two components of motivation given by inborn and adventitious components. fit inly, Lawler (1969) has defined unalienable motivation as the degree to which feelings of esteem, growth, and competence are expected to result from successful assess performance. This view boundary built-in motivation to an expectancy approach and expectancy system which clearly indicates that intrinsic and extrinsic motivations rack up (Porter Lawler, 1968).Moreover, according to Amabile et al. (1993) Individuals are say to be intrinsically motivated when they seek, interest, expiation of curiosity, self expression, or personalized challenge in the work. On the other hand individuals are said to be extrinsically motivated when they enmeshed in the work to gain some goal that is part of the work itself. As per to the author this definition of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation is based on the individual perception of the individual perception of task and his or her reasons for engaging in it. Moreover, Amabile et al. farther argued that intrinsic motivators arise from an individuals feelings with regards to the activity and they are necessary to hold to the work itself. Converse ly, extrinsic motivators although they may be dependent on the work, they are not logically an natural part of the work. Extrinsic motivators refer to anything, coming from an step forwardside source that designate to catch work performance and include utilizations such as promised punish, critical feedback, deadlines, surveillance or preciseations on how to do the work.Furthermore, in line with the concept of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, De Charms (1968) suggest that external rewards might undermine intrinsic motivation. He further proposed that mans primary motivation is to be effective in developing changes in his environment and individuals seek for personal causation. According to the author because of the desire to be the origin of his behavior, man keeps struggling against the constraint of external forces. Thus, De Charms hypothesized that when a man perceives his behavior as originating from his own choice, he will value that behavior and its results but when h e perceives his behavior as originating from external forces, that behavior and its results, even though identical in other reckon to behavior of his own choosing, will be deprecious. De Charms (1968) further argued that intrinsic and extrinsic motivation may interact, alternatively than summate that is the introduction of extrinsic rewards for the behaviors that was intrinsically rewarding may decrease rather than enhance the boilers suit motivation. The introduction of an extrinsic reward put the individual in a dependent position congenator to the source of the reward. The locus of causality for his behavior changes from self to the external reward and thus the individuals perception of self-control, melt choice, and commitment deteriorate and hence do his motivation. De Charms (1968) also anticipated an interaction between the intrinsic and extrinsic dimensions given if rewards are withheld. The motivation to perform a task undertaken originally in order to compass an extr insic reward may increase if the reward is subsequently withdrawn. This inexplicable effect develops because of the liberation of the individuals intrinsic motivation following the reduction of extrinsic controls over his behavior.In addition Frey (1997) note that high intrinsic work motivation evolving from work which is interesting involves the trust and loyalty of personal relationships and is participatory. However, under original circumstances, intrinsic motivation can be diminished, or crowded-out by external interventions like monitoring or accept-for-performance incentive schemes. This was also supported by Frey and Jegen (2001) who reviewed the literature on intrinsic motivations and found that the evidence does suggest that incentives sometimes do crowd-out intrinsic motivations. Besides, Frey (1997) suggests that the important matter is whether the external intervention is in the form of a control or a reward. Commands are most controlling in the sense that they seize self-determination from the agent, succession rewards might still allow autonomy of action.The maximization of employees motivation to attain the organizations goals can only be obtained through a complete empathizeing of motivation theories (Reid 2002). There is a wide variety of theoretical frameworks that have been develop in the attempts to explain the issues related to motivation. Stoner, Edward and Daniel (1995) has described two different views on motivation theory, given by the earliest views and the contemporary approach which can further be subdivided into field and process theories.Theories of MotivationThe earliest views of motivationOne of the earliest views of motivation is Frederick W Taylor et al. (1911) scientific management theory. Taylor (1911) with regards to employee motivation proposed a paternalistic approach to managing employees which is based on a combination of hypothesise training, performance related pay system, improved employee selection techniqu es, and handicraft redesign, including the introduction of ergonomics. According to Taylor (1911), workers are economic men and in order to motivate them, workers should be paid high wages. The author also argued that the higher is the wage rate, the higher will be the direct motivation and productivity. Furthermore, Taylor points out that many payment methods were ineffective, as they did not reward efficiency and he believed that a differential piece-work incentive system should be replaced with a piece rate incentive system (Wren, 2005). In other words workers should be paid according to the number of units produced in order to motivate them to work.On the other hand in line with building on the concept of motivation Elton Mayo (1953) came up with the Human Relations approach whereby the emphasis is laid on non-economic motivators. According to Elton Mayo (1953), if objectives of organizations are to be met, it must attempt to understand, respect and consider the emotions, sen se of recognition and satisfaction that is the non-monetary inescapably of workers. He believed that employees are not just concern with money but also they assume to have their social needs to be met in order to be motivated to work. He is of view that workers enjoy interactions and managers should treat them as people who have worth spot opinions.Furthermore, McGregor (1960) postulates Theory X and Theory Y which is based on assumptions about people and work. According to this theory, there are two types of assumption made with regards to employees whereby theory X assumes that employees are lazy and therefore theory X suggests that in order to motivate employees a more autocratic style of management is required. On the other hand theory Y assumes that workers enjoy work, committed to objectives of the organization and will apply self control and self directed in the pursuit of organizational objectives and therefore does not require external control.Content theories of motivat ionContent theories tend to focus on individual needs and attempt to explain the factors within a person that stimulate and stop behavior, in other words they focus on identifying factors that motivate people (Reid, 2002). According to Bassett-Jones and Lloyd (2005), national theory assume a more complex interaction between both internal and external factors, and explored the circumstances in which individuals react to different types of internal and external stimuli.The most well known content theory of motivation is the hierarchy of needs which has been put forward by Abraham Maslow (1943). According to Maslow, people are motivated by quint types of needs and in order to motivate people to work more productively there is a need to offer them opportunity to satisfy those needs. He proposed that basic needs are organized in a hierarchy of prepotency and probability of appearance (Wahba and Bridwell, 1973). These needs include physiological needs, safety needs, social needs, self -esteem and self-actualization. Maslow argued that once a lower order need is fulfilled, the next take aim of needs in the hierarchy comes into play that is once employees satisfy the lower order needs they will next consider the next level of needs. The author further argued that unfulfilled lower needs govern ones thinking and behavior until they are satisfied (Berl et al. 1984).However this theory has also been criticized to a large extent, for type Wahba and Bridwell (1973) argued that based on the ten factor analytic studies that have attempted to test Malows theory there is no clear evidence that human needs are classified into five different categories, or that these categories are organized in a special hierarchy. The authors contradict Malows proposition and points out that, none of the studies has shown all of Maslows five need categories as independent factors (p. 516), for example some studies have showed that the self-actualization needs may come forth as an indepen dent category. They also argued that studies have also proved the issue of need deprivation and the command of behavior to be different from that suggested by Maslow. Moreover results have also proved that either self-actualization or security are the least satisfied needs and social needs are the most satisfied. Therefore the degree of satisfaction of other needs varies greatly that is it is difficult to determine their general pattern and these trends are not the aforementioned(prenominal) as proposed by Maslow (Wahba and Bridwell, 1973).Conversely, Alderfer (1972) in the attempt to address the short comings of Malows theory proposed an alternative to Maslows theory which he termed as the ERG theory and postulate a trey level hierarchy. Alderfer grouped Maslows five categories of needs into three categories given by Existence, Relatedness and Growth. According to the author, people are motivated by these three groups of core needs and he asserted that as one level of need is sa tisfied other takes over but if a need is not satisfied on a continuous basis, the individual may decide to give such a need a low priority.Nonetheless, while Maslow and Alderfer presented the concept of motivation in a hierarchy, McClelland (1961, 1971), ignored the concept of hierarchy and put forward a theory known as the acquired need theory that emphasize on three types of needs videlicet, need for affiliation, need for achievement and need for power. McClelland is of view that individuals experiences are acquired through life experiences that is they are learned. According to this theory individuals occupy several needs, and when these needs are activated they serve to motivate behavior and this is to the contrary of Maslows proposition of a continuous progression throughout the hierarchy of needs (Steers et al. 2004).Moreover, also put differently Herzberg et al. (1959) sought to understand how work activities and the nature of an employees hypothesise influence motivatio n and performance. They proposed a theory that involves what they termed as motivators and hygiene factors and argued that motivation factors tend to increase job satisfaction while hygiene factors tend to decrease job satisfaction. According to Herzberg the most crucial difference between the motivators and the hygiene factors is that the motivator factors involve psychological growth while the hygiene factors involve physical and psychological pain avoidance. The authors examined motivators and hygiene factors in the workplace and proposed that where job satisfaction was high there would be cor sufficeing high motivation. Herzberg (1959) further argued that work motivation is influenced to a large extent by the degree to which a job is intrinsically challenging and provides opportunities for recognition and reinforcement.However condescension that Herbergs theory has been widely accepted by managers (e.g Latham 2007, Miner 2005, Steers and Porter 1983), this theory has been crit icized by many authors. For example Reid (2002) argued that the work of Herzberg is an examination of job satisfaction rather than motivation of employees. Reid also argued that no matter how oftentimes emphasis is laid on factors that are intrinsically rewarding, if hygiene factors such as low pay is not addressed, their full effect cannot be felt. Moreover, also Brenner et al. (1971) contradict Herzberg proposition that motivation factors increase job satisfaction and hygiene factors leads to job dissatisfaction and points out that his study and others indicated that the employees received job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction from both the motivating and the hygiene factors. Similarly Locke (1976) assessed Herzberg two factor theory and argued that job satisfaction and dissatisfaction result from different causes. Locke also argued that the two-factor theory is inconsistent in classifying factors of satisfaction.Process theories of motivationAlong with the content theories, t here are also different process theories. According to Viorel et al. (2009) the content theories emphasize on specific factors that motivate workers with regards to certain necessities and aspirations, while the process theories emphasize on the processes and the psychological forces that have an impact on motivation. They start from the insert that motivation starts with the desire to do something. The process or cognitive theories are more useful to the managers compared to the content theories because they provide more realistic principles with regards to the motivation techniques (Viorel et al. 2009).Vroom (1964), in the interest to study motivation developed an alternative to the content theories which is known as the expectancy theory. Vroom suggest that there are three mental components that are considered as instigating and directing behavior and these are referred to as Valence, Instrumentality, and Expectancy. He argued that employees rationally prove different on-the-jo b work behaviors and then choose those behaviors which they believe will lead to their most valued work-related rewards and outcomes for example promotion. Moreover, Porter and Lawler (1968) expanded Vrooms work to identify the role of individual differences for example employee abilities and skills and the role pellucidness in relating job effort to actual job performance. Porter and Lawler also explained the relationship between performance and satisfaction. They argued that this relationship is mediated by the extent and quality of the rewards that employees receive in return for their job performance.In addition to expectancy theory Adams (1963), developed the equity theory to clarify how employees respond cognitively and behaviorally with regards to immorality in the workplace. Adams suggested that employees develop beliefs about what constitutes a fair and equitable return for their job performance and contributions therefore employees always compare their efforts and the as sociated rewards with that of other employees and in courting there is a situation whereby there is an division of injustice or unfairness there is an imbalance that is a perception of inequity will result. The author is therefore of view that when perception of inequity occurs the employee will get engaged in activities in order to overthrow the inequity that is the negative feelings of dissatisfaction will motivate the individual to do effort to redress the inequity.On the other hand, quite differently Latham and Locke (1979) came up with the goal setting theory. According to Latham (2004), the underlying premise of the goal setting theory is that ones conscious goals affect what one achieves (p. 126). The author argued that this is because a goal is said to be the objective or aim of an action and having a specific goal result to improved performance. Employees with specific hard goals tend to perform better compared to those with vague goals and that a goal is a standard for assessing an individuals performance. Moreover, Latham also suggested that to the extent that the goal is met or exceeded, satisfaction increases and conversely, to the extent that performance ignites short of the goal, ones satisfaction decreases (p. 126). succession content theories have tended to focus on needs of people and process theories have foc apply on factors motivating people, Adair (2006) have brought some newfangled issues in the field of employee motivation and developed a new theory of motivation known as the Fifty-Fifty rule. Unlike the authors of content and process theories, Adair is of view that motivation lies both within an individual as well as external to the individual. According to the author, 50 per centum of motivation lies within a person and fifty percent lies outside the person except Adair points out that this theory does not assert for the exactly fifty-fifty proportion in the equation but it only emphasized on the idea that a considerable part o f motivation lies within a person while a considerable part lies outside and beyond its control.Through these theories, it can be said that work motivation has been characterized by dimensions such as interesting job, ability to perform, recognition, adequate pay, and feedback on performance (Dwivedula and Bredillet, 2010). However according to Meyer et al. (2004) it is also very important to consider differences in the psychological states, or mindsets that can accompany motivation. Therefore, Meyer et al. (2004) argued that motivation theories developed in other areas of psychology render a convincing case that motivation is multidimensional.Opponent-Process Theory and Adaptation-Level TheoryThe opponent process theory, proposed by Solomon and Corbit (1973, 1974), explain that there are pairs of emotions that play in opposing pairs and when one of these emotions is experienced, the other is temporarily suppressed, however when one emotion is activated the icy one is also activate d. The author argued that the theory accounts for the universe of discourse of psychological mechanisms for the automatic or autonomic control of affect, such that repeated pleasures lose a lot of their pleasantness and make one potentially resourceful of new sources of suffering in the same vein, repeated aversive events lose a lot of their unpleasantness and make one potentially capable of new sources of pleasure (Solomon 1980, p.709). According to Bowling et al. (2005) proponents for this theory provide for a specific way in which job satisfaction is influenced by both the person and the environment. This theory is said to be a complementary explanation for job satisfaction stability that can be incorporated with the argument of dispositional and with adaptation-level theory (Bowling et al. 2005).Bowling et al. (2005) argued that the adaptation-level theory (Helson, 1948, 1964a, 1964b), offers one potential explanation for the temporal stability of job satisfaction (p. 1046). B owling explained that the theory postulates that someones evaluation of an outcome is said to be a function of previous(prenominal) experiences outcomes. For example, an employee who has worked for years without a pay raise would be expected to respond substantiatively to even a small pay increase because this change in pay would be different from that individuals adaptation level, however the positive response would be temporary as the persons adaptation level would eventually change as the experience of the pay increase is integrated into the employees adaptation level (Bowling et al. 2005).Self-Regulatory TheoryMoreover quite differently, Higgins (1997, 1998) proposed the restrictive focus theory that draw important differences in the processes through which individuals approach pleasure and avoid pain. Huggins proposed that individuals have two types of motivational systems given by a system that regulates rewards (promotion focus) and one that regulates punishments (preventi on focus). According to the author people who operate primarily within the promotion focus are concerned with accomplishments, are sensible towards the existence or absence of rewards, adopt a goal attainment strategy, are more creative and are more willing to take risks. However, people who operate within the prevention focus tend to be more concerned with duties and responsibilities and are more sensitive to the existence or absence of punishments. Moreover the regulatory focus is ascertained both by situational and chronic factors (Higgins, 1997, 1998).Job Characteristic Model (JCM)On the other hand Hackman and Oldhams (1976) proposed the Job Characteristic Model (JCM) and identified five core job characteristics namely skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback. According to the authors the core job characteristics are three determinants of the critical psychological states namely skill variety, task identity and task significance which contribute to experienced meaningfulness autonomy to experienced debt instrument and feedback to knowledge of results. The critical psychological states in turn are projected collectively as promoting job satisfaction, internal work motivation, performance and reduced absence and labor turnover. The model assumes that autonomy and feedback are more important than the other work characteristics and people with higher growth need strength will respond more positively to enriched jobs than others (Parker et al. 2001).Activation theoryBesides, quite similar to the JCM, Anderson (1976, 1983) came up with the activation theory whereby he argued that the strongest motivating factor is the work itself however over time as the worker get used with the environment and learns the responses required in the repetitive task there may be a fall in the activation level or job stimulation. It is important to highlight that over time all work tends to become repetitive after the job has been practiced and theref ore a wide range of dysfunctional and non-task activities must be pursued to offset the fall in the job stimulation level (Milbourn 1984). Moreover according to Milbourn (1984), if dysfunctional activities are addressed, managers can consider enriching jobs through job redesign to reduce monotony at work in order to maintain job stimulation.Motivational practices in organisational environmentAccording to Islam and Ismail (2008) the theories mentioned continue to offer the foundation for organization and managerial development practices to a large extent. Along with the above theories, during the last decade, based on employees motivation many empirical studies have been carried out (Islam and Ismail, 2008). For example, Milliken (1996) has accounted for way the Eastman Chemical Company motivate and retain its employees and according to the author the ways or incentives espouse were job security, performance-based appraisal system, extrinsic recognition through employee suggestion s ystem, providing performance feedback and the provision of training in problem solving, etc. In addition Kovach (1995) has described the ranking of ten motivational factors made by the employees and their immediate supervisors and Kovach has found that to a large extent the rankings made by the supervisors differed to those made by the employees. He pointed out that managers make mistakes by thinking that what will motivate them will also be the same for the employees.On the other hand Bent et al. (1999) carried out research in small food manufacturing businesses whereby respondents were asked to complete, using a five-point Likert scale about how they felt motivated and then how satisfied they were with their jobs and the authors found that the degree of positive motivation was high. According to Bent et al. (1999) the employees were either very or moderately motivated with their jobs, however it was important to note that no respondents stated that they were either very motivated or very dissatisfied with their job. The authors also argued that issues which are associated with individual management style include lack of appreciation from management to feel for the work of employees and that there was also poor communication contributing to low job satisfaction and this contrasts with the identification by employees, of the motivating or satisfying qualities of a good management style. Moreover, another issue raised by the employees was that of training and this was both in terms of effective training contributing positively to job motivation and in terms of poor or lack of training which caused demotivation (Bent et al. 1999).Furthermore VAITKUVIEN- (2010) conducted research in two Swedish manufacturing companies given by, the company Frilight AB which manufactures yachts, boats and lightning equipment for camps, and the company Enitor Plast AB which manufactures different types of plastic parts. The author report that the workers were found satisfied with the working conditions, training of staffs and career opportunities. The author argued that the Swedish employees were motivated and that the employees do not avoid responsibilities and follow directions. VAITKUVIEN- (2010) also found that almost all employees are stimulated with the organizing of recreational tours, holidays and events. According to the author more than half of employees in the Sweden manufacturing companies are stimulated through gifts on various do (birthdays, holidays), free meals at work, health insurance coverage, work, clothes, equipment, travels for the company employees, days off, recognition and good working conditions and therefore the author pointed out that the employees of the manufacturing companies consider non-financial motivation tools to be more important.Eventually, Dwivedula and Bredillet (2010), in line with the authors Cummings and Blumberg (1987) pointed out that studies from the manufacturing sector emphasize on the importance of providing autonomy, and skill variety to the employees which are otherwise absent. On the other hand Adler (1991) observed and concluded that manufacturing firms rely on job rotation, and voluntary job switching to motivate the employees. Moreover, Galia (2008) supported by Dwivedula and Bredillet (2010) reported that more recently it has been observed that, in a survey of 5000 manufacturing rms by SESSI (Industrial Statistics Department of the French Ministry of Economics, Finance, and Industry), practices such as autonomy at work, incentives to promote creativity have been widely adopted in order to motivate the workers.